From 1789 to 1860, the United States actually lived under the system of enumerated powers James Madison designed. The federal government really was limited. States really did dominate most policy. And somehow—imperfectly, with glaring contradictions we’ll address—it worked.

Before income taxes, before Social Security, before the alphabet soup of federal agencies, the United States lived under what the Founders called a government of enumerated powers. The federal government was meant to be strong enough to defend the Union and regulate commerce, yet weak enough to leave most of life untouched. That balance—between energy and restraint—defined the first seven decades of the Republic. It was not perfect, not consistent, and certainly not unanimou